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(2020) 33:46579. Home Essential fatty acids, principally n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, are essential for human and animal health and immunity. There was also an augmented antioxidant balance in broilers supplemented with coconut and canola oil (63). Feed enzymes and yeast derivatives could prove to be suitable additional strategies to sustain gut function in and ensure their productive performance during coccidiosis infections (94) and under stress condition and normal condition (95, 96). (2016) 5:1619. doi: 10.1186/s40064-016-3304-0, 125. J Vet Diagn Invest. (2017) 96:275160. Enterococci bearing van genes were also identified in dust samples (17). Kitazawa H, Villena J, Alvarez S. Probiotics: Immunobiotics and Immunogenics. Attia YA, Abd El Hamid AE, Ismaiel AM, El-Naggar A. A similar increase in imports accompanied growth in poultry consumption for the Other Middle East region, led by the United Arab Emirates and Iraq. The most recent vital problems of poultry have been respiratory diseases. doi: 10.1016/j.cimid.2007.07.004, 139. Emerg Infec Dis. 89. Int J Pharmacol. . Nutrients. These annual growth rates are projected to remain near these levels over the next 10 years and are expected to contribute to the largest increase in poultry import demand and trade. Kar M, Khan NA, Panwar A, Bais SS, Basak S, Goel R, et al. Sci. doi: 10.1016/j.livsci.2015.07.017, 77. refers to poultry carcass from which feathers and innards have been removed. Heritage breed turkeys can fly, so you may need to be prepared to clip wings or create a covered run, if keeping them contained is necessary. Poult Sci. This directive and several protocols cover the adoption of targets aimed to decrease the occurrence of specific zoonoses at the level of principal production, in broilers, layers, and turkeys. The effect of Zn on chickens' immunity is also well-documented in the literature (112). Increased domestic production of feedstuffs for poultry (feed grains and soybeans) helped boost Brazils expansion of poultry production. Estimated US Slaughtered Compared To Estimated Fryers. The immunological effects of minerals and their essential role in immunity and health are well-known (9799). Sci. Specifically, there could be a marked increase in the cost of feeding for animal production and elevated product prices. The increased movement could also raise the hazard of introducing infections to specific regions that are free from such diseases (5). turkey sausage. Indeed, genetic pressure to improve the productive performance of animals adversely affects animals' welfare and natural immunity and thus disease tolerance. . Stockholders, veterinarians, farmers, and all the partners of the chain of poultry production need to be more involved in the current situation and the strategic future of the industry to fulfill human demands and ensure sustainable agriculture. Ciriaco E, Pinera PP, Diaz-Esnal B, Laura R. Age- related changes in avian primary lumphoid organs (thymus and bursa of Fabricius). Zaragoza: Publisher Grupo Ass Biomedia (2018). This is the reason that the chicken meat market has grown extremely high in the past few years, the export reaching nearly 12 .5 million metric tons by the early 2 1 s t century. Svetlana et al. Jameel YJ, Sahib AM, Husain MA. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURECOMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE Muscle tissue consist of three major components: Water - 75% Protein - 20% Fat - up to 5% Carbohydrates - small quantities. (105) reviewed the existing evidence on the effect of Zn form and concentration on immunity and found that the Zn requirement for immunity is 90.63 and 106 mg/kg diet, which is higher than that needed for growth and feed conversion ratio of broilers (93.37 and 75.72 mg/kg diet, respectively). Establish a program to investigate and control of infectious animal diseases. These diseases are candidates for the application of biotechnology tools for the selection of disease resistance (54, 55). ; SPLIT BREAST WITHOUT BACK It is a breast quarter with wing and back . *Correspondence: Hafez M. Hafez, hafez@vetmed.fu-berlin.de; Youssef A. Attia, yaattia@kau.edu.sa, Changes in Political and Social Conditions and Consumer Perceptions, http://fenix.fao.org/faostat/internal/en/#home, https://www.statista.com/statistics/237597/leading-10-countries-worldwide-in-poultry-meat-production-in-2007/, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:02003L0099-20130701&from=EN, https://en.engormix.com/MA-poultry-industry/health/articles/current-regulations-produc-tion-processing-t1774/165-p0.htm, https://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/diseases/strategy/index, https://aaap.memberclicks.net/assets/Positions/AAAP%20COV19%20Jackwood%20Position%20Paper.pdf, https://en.engormix.com/pig-industry/articles/covid-biosecurity-threat-like-t45092.htm, https://www.intechopen.com/books/application-of-genetics-and-genomics-in-poultry-science/genetics-of-disease-resistance-in-chicken, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Guchhait P, Haldar C. Time and reproductive phase dependent effects of exogenous melatonin on the pineal gland and ovary of a nocturnal bird, the Indian spotted owlet, Athene brama. Wild vs. Initially, the virus infects the respiratory system; however, some strains show a shift in tissue tropism and spread to other organs, such as the kidneys, oviduct, and proventriculus (45, 46). Zn homeostasis is closely connected with the normal operating of both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, and thus many pathogens are indirectly or directly influenced by perturbations in Zn homeostasis. (2013) 7:695700. doi: 10.1017/S095026881200009X, 24. Vitamins boost animal and human immunity. J Med Virol. doi: 10.1079/WPS200571. Management of multidrug-resistant enterococcal infections. (1999) 63:23745. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2020.03.022, 68. Classthe subdivision of kind, depending on age and sex. 90. Additionally, fish oil markedly elevates antibody titers and the bursa of Fabricius and spleen weight and the spleen percentage (76). Eradication, elimination, and/or control of foodborne and zoonotic pathogens present a major challenge to the poultry industry. Laying performance, digestibility and plasma hormones in laying hens exposed to chronic heat stress as affected by betaine, vitamin C, and/or vitamin E supplementation. The bursa of Fabricius reaches its maximum size at 810 weeks of age and then undergoes regression. A Draft Risk Assessment of Campylobacter spp. These education programs can positively impacted the industry, improved human wellbeing, and limited the loss in humans and animals (54). Animal. Currently, there is great concern about the welfare of animals, hygiene, and disease control that may result from great genetic pressure to boost egg and meat production. The tolerance to metronidazole, sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, and tetracycline was 58 (76.3%), 58 (76.3%), 51 (67.1%), 53 (69.7%), and 42 (55.3%), respectively. Many factors, including nutritional management, have been established to stabilize the adverse impact of environmental stressors on animal immunity and, thus, health (5254, 56). However, it can effectively enhance the blood biochemical traits and the activity of the antioxidative enzyme at a 60% replacement level. Attia YA, Hassan SS. However, microorganisms can be detected in the gut of killed birds. Sci. We acknowledge support by the Open Access Publication Initiative of Freie Universitt Berlin, Germany. Ital J Anim Sci. This growth is primarily due to import demand in sub-Saharan African markets such as Ghana and the Democratic Republic of Congo, as well as Hong Kong and Saudi Arabia. Anim Sci Pap Rep. (2019) 37:27795. Int J Biometeorol. Department of Poultry Science, Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Pakistan, University of Wisconsin-Madison, United States. Maasjost J, Mhldorfer K, Cortez de Jckel S, Hafez HM. Al-Khalifa HS, Givens D, Rymer C, Yaqoob P. Effect of n-3 fatty acids on immune function in broiler chickens. They concluded it would be best to keep the n-3:n6 ratio around 1:1. doi: 10.3382/ps.2007-00207, 123. By 2428 weeks of age, most of the bursa of Fabricius is heavily depleted. doi: 10.5455/javar.2020.g412. doi: 10.1038/ni969, 138. doi: 10.4081/ijas.2009.s1.21, 32. Poult Sci. doi: 10.1016/S0213-005X(10)70043-4, 16. Anim Reprod Sci. Vitamin D3, or its active form 25-(OH)D, both have strong immunomodulatory properties with the ultimate help of T cells (Th2) (131134). However, nutritional intervention programs may enhance immunity and health status but have a limited impact and cannot replace advantageous clinical effects in intensive care treatment patients (66, 67). Cavani C, Petracci M, Trocino A, Xiccato G. Advances in research on poultry and rabbit meat quality. Poult Sci. Live: almost never purchased in food service. Fish oil supplementation increased follicle length and width of the bursa of Fabricius and depth of the thymus cortex, but the fish oil decreased the follicle length-to-width ratio. (111) revealed that substituting FeSO4 with iron-glycine chelate at the identical dietary Fe concentration cannot enhance the broilers' productive criteria. Gorman S, Buckley AG, Ling KM, Berry LJ, Fear VS, Stick SM, et al. doi: 10.3923/ijp.2017.724.731, 110. Continuous education programs should be implemented at all levels of the poultry industry and must be renewed every three years. Nguyen TN, Hotzel H, Njeru J, Mwituria J, El-Adawy H, Tomaso H, et al. Similar to Brazil, the EU's poultry export market grew from 2001 to 2021, although the region remains the world's third-largest exporter. 14th ed. 97. Biosecurity, hygiene, immunity are front lines of defense, perhaps the greatest lesson we learned from the COVID-19 pandemic. Physiol Rep. (2017) 15:e13371. The immunomodulatory effect of vitamin D in chickens is dose-dependent and influenced by calcium and phosphorus levels. The deficiency of nutrients may increase the threat of emerging diseases such as COVID-19 and thus assuring adequate supplementation with vitamins C, E, and D is essential under such condition (6165). Cambridge, MA: CABI (2008). The effects could be attributed to T lymphocyte signaling pathways, as well as cytokine and eicosanoid synthesis (i.e., mediators of inflammatory response), and by varying the molecular configuration of lipid portfolios (64). Zn2+ inhibits coronavirus and arterivirus RNA polymerase activity in vitro and zinc ionophores block the replication of these viruses in cell culture. Poultry is expected to remain the worlds largest imported livestock commodity by volume over the next 10 years. Both eggs and meat are strategic goods; thus, extended the investment in the poultry industry in Saudi Arabia is a promising agricultural sector. The poultry meat and egg production in Saudi Arabia are presented in Table 1. Acta Veterinaria (Beograd). Africa and Asia lead in guinea fowl and geese. Any stress-causing agent can hinder poultry disease resistance, increase the susceptibility of chickens to infections, and decrease the effectiveness of vaccinations. Water-soluble vitamin C improves the antioxidant balance, provides antiviral function, relieves oxidative stress, enhances immunity, and spares vitamin E (125127). doi: 10.1399/eps.2015.80, 87. Rev Mex Cienc Pecu. Generally, vaccination does not prevent infection; rather, it only leads to a reduction in the number of outbreaks. p. 1113. Chickens provide 93 percent of world egg production. VRE was observed in 15 out of 20 (75%) tested turkey flocks. Free-range farming of egg-laying hens is increasing its share of the market. The most achievable alterations have been a decrease in the market age of approximately 4 weeks, a better growth rate, greater breast yield, and a higher laying rate and daily egg mass. Mulder R. Current EU Regulations for the Production and Processing of (Safe) Poultry Meat. (2012) 91:7488. 118. Ital J Anim Sci. Research to develop new vaccines and track changes in RNA viruses and disease epidemiology should continue to avoid threats from zoonotic diseases (53). Attia YA, Al-Harthi MA, Hassan SS. This strategy included improving the educational background of workers through continuing education and training programs, improving biosecurity and hygienic measurements for poultrymen, slaughterhouses, and feed plants, and in farm biosecurity and hygiene. EFSA. Amino acids, specific fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals requirements for optimal immunity are higher than those needed for optimum growth and production performance and benefits (56). However, U.S. exports to Latin American countries, particularly Cuba, Guatemala, and Colombia, have expanded over the last decade. J Anim Phys Anim Nutr. poultry A review of the aetiology and possible causative factors of foot pad dermatitis in growing turkeys and broilers. (2020) 10:973. doi: 10.3390/ani10060973, 69. Emerging food-borne zoonoses. It includes five lobules where T cells multiply; these cells are responsible for cellular immunity (136). Role of chromium in poultry nutrition and health: beneficial applications and toxic effects. In five flocks, there was MRSA of spa-type t002 that is not connected to CC398. Muha ARA, Md. doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.09.025, 23. Traber MG, Atkinson J. Vitamin E antioxidant and nothing more. Whole poultry doi: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2017.02.018, 50. processed poultry. Se is also part of the deiodinase enzyme essential for the activation of the thyroid hormone (97, 101, 102). However, the nutritional requirements of essential fatty acids need further exploration. Before 2001, Ghana and Angola had strong poultry sectors, but the 26-year civil war in Angola and surges in production costs for items such as feed and energy in both countries led to a decline in production capacity. Animals. 12. J Adv Vet Anim Res (2020) 7(2):260-80. doi: 10.5455/javar.2020.g418, 40. 2nd ed. Richter et al. 9th ed. Therefore, further research is obligatory to fully elucidate the effects of dietary oil fortification. Lymphocyte, splenocyte, and heterophil proliferation, maturation, and cytokine production are affected by omega fatty acids. Fish oil supplementation has no adverse properties on the immune task of broilers (63). MARKET FORMS OF POULTRY Live poultry- the chicken is alive; when selecting this form, choose those hat are alert, well-feathered, and well-formed. The reducing capacity of these phytochemicals can preserve the minerals in a reduced form during the synthetic process. 106. Total imports of livestock commodities, including poultry, pork, and beef increased 117 percent from 2001 to 2021 and are projected to continue to grow through 2031. The mucosa in the respiratory tract and digestive canals, as well as in the skin, secretes constituents such as lysozymes with vital bactericidal activity (45). Fortification of animals' diets with antibiotics to promote growth has increased the public's concern about the safety of animal products and their adverse effects on human health and natural immunity. The food law objectives are to ensure a high level of protection to human life and health, considering animal health and welfare protection, plant health, and the environment. Arch Geflgelk. Global collaboration and trade will cause governments throughout the world to synchronize their current legislation linked to the market, control of disease, poultry nutrition, and the drugs and vaccines licensing for veterinary practice, particularly after the COVID-19 pandemic. MARKET FORMS OF POULTRY Poultry Are domesticated birds kept by humans on farm for their eggs, meat, feathers and entertainment. Compared to the countries with the highest meat and egg production countries, Saudi Arabia imports most of the broiler meat its citizens consume, with production accounting for less than 58% of the consumed meat (4). Zabetakis I, Lordan R, Norton C, Tsoupras A. COVID-19: the inflammation link and the role of nutrition in potential mitigation. (2020) Evaluation of heavy metal content in feed, litter, meat, meat products, liver, and table eggs of chickens. doi: 10.3382/ps/pex173, 142. In the future, a few authorized pharmaceuticals and veterinary products will be available to treat poultry as food-producing animals (53). Saudi Arabia is also among the top countries in poultry meat and egg consumption. p. 11735. Front. MARKET FORMS OF POULTRY WHOLE CHICKEN These are marketed either fresh or frozen ; HALVES The chicken is split front to back through the backbone and keel. Drawn Poultry Dressed Poultry Live Poultry Ready-to cook Whole Poultry 2. Bee pollen and propolis as dietary supplements for rabbit: effect on reproductive performance of does and on immunological response of does and their offspring. The infection is mostly accompanied by a reduction in the growth rate and a drop in egg quality and quantity (4749). Good examples include bacterial, fungal, and parasitic diseases such as cholera, aflatoxin, and coccidiosis (44). Dressed poultry - this refers to slaughtered poultry with head, feet, and viscera intact; the blood and feathers are removed. Their effects include improving metabolic status, decreasing physiological stress, inhibiting the excursion of cytokines by the macrophages, and antimicrobial activity, thus enhance immunity (86). Developing and emerging markets have led most of the growth in poultry consumption over the past 10 years. (2017) 4:1297658. doi: 10.1155/2017/1297658, 119. These endeavors will include the launch of programs to control infectious diseases, face the constant changes in political and social conditions, address consumers' perceptions about animal welfare, and ensure the safety and security of foods and environmental defense issues. Birds fed a diet with a greater n-6: n-3 ratio show impaired epithelial cell growth in the intestine (79). (2010) 16:55562. Poultry, particularly chicken, provides an efficient solution to evolving patterns in consumption. Blood hematological and biochemical constituents, antioxidant enzymes, immunity and lymphoid organs of broiler chicks supplemented with propolis, bee pollen and mannan oligosaccharides continuously or intermittently. Richter A, Sting R, Popp C, Rau J, Tenhagen BA, Guerra B, et al. Washington, DC: National Academy Press (1994). First, consumer health safety is ensured by decreasing the use of medicines/antibiotics, improving resistance to disease, controlling zoonotic pathogens, and ensuring the traceability of animals and their products. 30. Firm (well done) The texture of poultry that has been thoroughly cooked. 10. Furthermore, these green nanoparticles are highly biodegradable and, therefore, do not exert negative consequences on the environment (110). Improve protections, prevention, and control disease program in poultry farms. Definition "Poultry" is a term used for any kind of domesticated bird, captive-raised for its utility, and traditionally the word has been used to refer to wildfowl ( Galliformes) and waterfowl ( Anseriformes) but not to cagebirds such as songbirds and parrots. El-Adawy et al. Thus, developing fast, accurate, and affordable diagenetic tools/kits that can be used on farms is absolutely necessary, and research in this area should be initiated and given maximum funding and impetus. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, lessons to be learned! World Poult. In addition, health prospects such as enteric disorders due to clostridial infections and dysbacteriosis increased (14). 57. (2012) 56:68592. Sigrist B, Tobler K, Schybli M, Konrad L, Stckli R, Cattoli G, et al. Improve the innate animal immunity as the frontline of disease prevention and control. The aims of the several pieces of EU legislation toward food safety were cited (12) as follows. The two outstanding meat breeds are the Toulouse, predominantly gray in colour, and the Embden (or Emden), which is white. (2000) 48:916. Regulation No. (2020) 74:110835. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2020.110835, 67. Grant WB, Lahore H, McDonnell SL, Baggerly CA, French CB, Aliano JL, et al. Table 1. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-079X.1999.tb00622.x. Schlottau K, Rissmann M, Graaf A, Schn J, Sehl J, Wylezich C, et al. Multidrug-resistance to three or more groups of antimicrobial substances fluctuated from 3.9 to 40.8%. Countries such as South Africa, Ghana, and Angolasome of the most highly urbanized countries in the regionaccount for more than half of poultry imports to the region. doi: 10.1080/09712119.2015.1013964, 88. Effect of a low crude protein diet supplemented with different levels of threonine on growth performance, carcass traits, blood parameters, and immune responses of growing broilers. (2010) 4:459. 9. These endeavors support European decision-makers in implementing decisions and establishing policies to safeguard consumers in the European Union (EU). 8. Maasjost et al. (2004) 23:51333. Vet Microb. Evidence that vitamin D supplementation could reduce risk of influenza and COVID-19 infections and deaths. doi: 10.3201/eid1005.030827, 43. Passive and active immunity and building antibodies are affected by nutrition, quantitative and qualitative feed constituents, and hygiene. Considering the precautionary principle and experiences that have been gained in some European countries, antibiotics have been banned as growth-promoting for food-producing animals since January 2006. When will COVID-19 End? Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in poultry nutrition: effect on production performance and health. Cons: Young poults are more delicate than chicks, and can be more challenging to raise to adulthood. Emerg Infect Dis. Coconut fat ameliorates broiler digestion of lipid and raised productive performance during the course of coccidiosis infection (82). It is widely recognized that beneficial microbiotaprobiotics, lactic acid bacteria, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, with its cell wall constituents glucan and MOSand organic acids are necessary for immunity and gut health. doi: 10.1017/S004393391200058X, 129. Utilisation of thyme powder (Thyme vulgaris L.) as a growth promoter alternative to antibiotics for broiler chickens raised in a hot climate. Giblets. Poultry immunity, health, and production are several factors that challenge the future growth of the poultry industry. That move curtailed poultry exports to South Africa, particularly those from the United States. Global poultry farming has aggressively selected for traits that focus on maximum poultry production and improving feed utilization and farming profits. Habibian M, Ghazi S, Moeini MM, Abdolmohammadi A. In a future study, improvements in laboratory diagnosis will offer sensitive, fast, and precise disease diagnosis, and early mediations will be a reality (4547). doi: 10.3382/ps/pex086, 71. Poult Sci. De Neeling AJ, Van Den Broeh M, Spalburg EC, Van Santen-Verheuvel MG, Dam-Deisz W, Boshuizen HC, et al. (2015) 94:28317. Mohamed MH, Abdelaziz AM, Kumar S, Al-Habib MA, Megahed MM. These concepts are vital parts of threat analysis, which comprise risk management, as well as evaluating, selecting, and applying various courses of action. On 12 of the farms, 22 of the 59 (37.3%) individuals' tests were shown MRSA. 6. All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication. Kind: This term refers to the species of bird, e.g. Rather, it will also incorporate the interconnection of the animals' health, welfare, and immunity. Brazil is the worlds leading poultry exporter and is projected to remain in the top position through 2031. This system enhances the animal's resistance to the same antigen in the future. This requirement depends on the type of and form of the mineral, animal age and strain, environmental stress, and hygienic conditions. Show more Arts & Humanities Writing Answer & Explanation Solved by verified expert In addition, the continuous increase in the costs of feedstuffsand thus feeds and foodsremain prominent issues (2). Garca-Rey C. The role of the pharmaceutical industry. (2017) 16:27582. Nutrients. 38. This phenomenon will hinder the strategic vision of some counties, such as Saudi Arabia, to achieve their future goals. Transcriptomic analyses have demonstrated that the immunomodulatory influence of immunobiotics is strain-specific (9193). The birds are raised for meat and eggs as well as for their down feathers. refers to poultry carcass from which feathers have been removed; the head, feet, and innards are still intact. From 2001 to 2021, poultry imports increased most in sub-Saharan Africa, expanding from 0.33 million tons to 1.96 million metric tons. There has been an increase in egg and poultry meat consumption during lockdowns due to several factors, such as low prices, easy and fast preparation, and high nutritional value (3, 4). doi: 10.1016/j.anifeedsci.2016.10.023, 82. (2012) 76:23945. They were imposing strict regulations for Animal biosecurity and hygienic condition and Zoonotic diseases. Attia YA, Al-Harthi MA, Abo El-Maaty H. Calcium and cholecalciferol levels on late phase-laying hens' diets: effects on productive and egg quality traits, blood biochemistry and immune responses. (2020). This phenomenon can result in pulmonary hypertension, sudden death syndrome, deep pectoral myopathy, and aortic rupture (32). (2015) 180:23746. By comparison, the United States shipped 1 percent of its poultry exports to China during that time. In general, the expected outcomes are improve basic knowledge and scientific background related to biosecurity and hygiene of poultry framing; refresh and update relevant individuals with recent information on poultry farming, processing plants, hatcheries and feed mill; cross-react; and improve the work environment and safety. In May 2023, Frontiers adopted a new reporting platform to be Counter 5 compliant, in line with industry standards. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) risk assessment definitions encompass the scientific assessment of potential adverse health and known negative effects. Chicken meat is the most consumed meat throughout the world. (2011) 95:74455. Sunflower, soybean, rapeseed, and palm oils are rich sources of n-6 fatty acids, while fish and flaxseed oils and certain nuts are a good source of n-3 fatty acidswith different n-3 fatty acids such as EPA and DHA as well as alpha-linolenic acid (64). The projections for poultry trade used to develop this article are based on conditions as they existed upon the release of the October 2021 World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates (WASDE) report. Clin Nutr. As demand for poultry products grew in these markets during the period from 2001 to 2021, global imports increased. Nonetheless, antibiotics can also amplify the occurrence of drug-tolerant bacteria. USDAs 10-year Agricultural Baseline Projections, based on the release of the October 2021 World Agricultural Supply and Demand Estimates (WASDE), indicate that by 2031 total meat imports will increase to 46.7 million metric tons. (2017) 96:418292. Rahman MT, Sobur MA, Islam MS, Toniolo A, Nazmul Hussain Nazir KHM. Prevalence of types of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in turkey flocks and personnel attending the animals. (2020). Treatment protocols for zoonotic disease and their associated secondary infections, as well as alternative protocols, should be developed after the COVID-19 pandemic. Carenzi C, Verga M. Animal welfare: review of the scientific concept and definition. Campylobacter spp. Saudi Arabia meat and egg production compared with China, Brazil, and global meat (ready to cock) as well as egg number (3, 4). Int J Sci Nat. (103) found that the degree of cutaneous hypersensitivity to phytohemagglutinin (PHA) at 21 and 35 days of age was greater in broilers given organic Fe, and Gumboro antibody titers at 35 days of age are increased in broilers offered iron chelator, but at 42 days of age, the differences are diminished among broilers. Front Immunol. Enhance protections, prevention, and control program in poultry farms. (2017) 13:90715. The three largest exporters (by volume) are Brazil, the United States, and the European Union (EU).