(Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 2018). Sandhu, H. et al. Environmental costs estimated here are based on the production side of the corn value chain, linked to the inputs in corn production and do not include environmental costs associated with the transport, processing, and consumption. Here, we valued climate-related impacts of corn production by estimating CO2e emissions related to synthetic N fertilizer production and application and multiplying estimated emissions by the social cost of carbon. In corn production systems, produced capital includes farm produce, farm machinery and equipment, road networks, irrigation infrastructure, drying, storage facilities, etc. According to researchers at the University of Saskatchewan, Western Canada experiences$350 $400 millionin annual benefits from the production of GM canola. Gene flow from GM crops poses a threat to wild and weedy crop relatives, non-GM crops and foods, and organic farming. Meeting the food demand of increasing human population requires increased production and also a major policy shift in the way food is produced, processed, distributed and consumed1,2,3. Ecol. Google Scholar. However, studies have found both that organic systems leach less29 and there is no differences in leaching between conventional and organic systems. For organic production systems, there are positive economic, social, health impacts, while limited environmental impacts. made news in the last years. Agriculture accounts for one-fifth of the global greenhouse gas emissions. The American Prospect 13, 3542 (1993). Organic corn production involves soil fertility management by using crop rotations over a four-year period with soybean, oats, vegetables and pastures. However, no studies quantifying the P export of organic systems were reviewed. Out of this, more than 92% is GM corn. Lark, T. J., Salmon, J. M. & Gibbs, H. K. Cropland expansion outpaces agricultural and biofuel policies in the United States. However, a more rigorous analysis of the impact of organic production would require access to the exact planted area (or total yields) of all organic farms within each ZIP code. Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. (World Bank, 2018). We use the 20-year average application rate to estimate the total amount of fertilizer applied to Minnesota corn systems35. What Is the Farm Bill? Thank you for visiting nature.com. Therefore, the society and economy are unable to perceive any hidden costs or benefits of agriculture and food systems. It intends to develop appropriate policy response to support the growing demand for diverse and nutritious food with less damages to environment and human health. Curr. Adv. Res. Island Press, Washington, DC. Corn plays an important role in the global economy, with USA being the leading producer of 370 million tonnes from 36 million hectares (harvested 33.08 million hectares in 2017), which accounts for over one-third of the global corn production12. This network extends in both private and public sectors of the corn-based economy in US. While our results show a statistically significant association between corn intensity in the proximity of individuals and their health, we cannot determine the channels through which this relationship is realised. This paper addresses this issue by systematically reviewing 99 peer-reviewed journal articles published since 2004 on the social impacts of GM crops in agriculture; summarising current knowledge, and identifying research gaps. However, organic practices are not being widely adopted as is evident from the 0.3% area under organic corn in Minnesota in 2017. Publishers note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. (Available online at, http://www.ipes-food.org/_img/upload/files/Concentration_FullReport.pdf Accessed: 30th November 2018). Organic acreage is less than 1% of the total corn area in the year 2017. (Minnesota Department of Health, 2018). To obtain Organic practices have a slight negative impact on corn yield. GM/hybrid corn is either grown in rotation with soybean or two subsequent corn crops are grown year after year. 1. Areawide suppression of European corn borer with Bt maize reaps savings to non-Bt maize growers. Report prepared by ICF under USDA Contract No. (Available online at http://data.worldbank.org Accessed: 30th November 2018). USA 96, 59956000 (1999). Acad. 17, 11401152, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02349.x (2011). Tilman, D. et al. Recent Trends in GE Adoption. This study compared two dominant corn production systems and did not examine other stages of the corn value chain. However, the comparison of farm expenditure is based on the USDA ERS data from 201049, where average data from two corn regions Heartland and Northern crescent is presented in absence of current estimates (adjusted to 2017 USD). In large enough quantities, phosphates cause lakes and other bodies of water become eutrophic, a state dominated by excessive plant growth and algal blooms. PubMed From the tiniest protocells to modern humans, our species has undergone a remarkable journey of adaptation, innovation, and survival. Economic contribution from corn also includes other allied goods and services that supply all farm inputs, research, market support, finance and insurance, animal feed and ethanol production. Ties between individuals, or the groups they belong to, etc., are known as linking social capital. Annually, 145 million tonnes of synthetic fertilizers are applied in agriculture along with pesticides and veterinary chemicals. However, the market price, in 2017, of organic corn is 2.4 times more than GM corn. Informal networks between neighbours, friends, grower groups are used to acquire training from others who have already adopted new practices. Lett. Hoben, J. P., Gehl, R. J., Millar, N., Grace, P. R. & Robertson, G. P. Nonlinear nitrous oxide (N2O) response to nitrogen fertilizer in onfarm corn crops of the US Midwest. & Ventura, E. E. High fructose corn syrup and diabetes prevalence: A global perspective. For example, the plausible social costs to drinking water, air quality, and N2O derived climate change, from 1kg of N fertilizer applications ranged from $0.05 to over $1025. Expanding the analysis to include other corn-producing states would provide evidence as to whether the negative health effects of corn production hold on a broader scale, and in doing so increase sample size available to researchers. Hansen, L., Ribaudo, M. Economic Measures of Soil Conservation Benefits. Agricultural intensification and ecosystem properties. Corn monoculture has also promoted losses in terms of crops and genetic biodiversity of arthropods and other fauna19. Synthetic pesticides are prohibited in organic systems and any pests are managed naturally by relying on natural biological control. Measuring progress toward sustainability. Another key challenge of global agriculture is to minimize impacts on environment and human health4,5. If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate. Natural capital comprises of biodiversity and natural ecosystems that generates multiple benefits for the humanity in the form of ecosystem goods and services39. These agrochemicals, along with some high impact agricultural practices and high fossil fuel energy use, have resulted in pollution of water ways, eutrophication, depletion of freshwater resources, increased greenhouse gas emissions, land degradation and loss of biodiversity8,9. Science 302(5652), 19124 (2003). Twenty years of ecosystem services: How far have we come and how far do we still need to go? We use estimates of P export from cropland modelled by the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency56 and weighted those by the proportion of cropland that is used for corn production. H.S. For GM corn production systems, there are positive economic impacts, however, the divide between small- and large-scale farmers is increasing, leading to negative social, health and environmental impacts. Agr. Vitale and colleagues calculated that Bt cotton adoption in Burkina Faso resulted in a profit of, Pray and colleagues found that Bt cotton adoption in China allowed farmers to spray less frequently, in some instances, Huangand colleagues observed that Chinese Bt cotton farmers had. For these reasons, applying the costs presented here to other regions will not reflect the local social costs of corn production. Agric. The assessment is based on existing data and information, which may be a limiting factor in understanding the comprehensive costs and benefits. For the natural capital impacts of corn, environmental costs associated with production of corn are estimated in this study and do not include environmental costs associated with transport, processing, and consumption. Ecosyst. (2016). ISSN 2045-2322 (online). This requires a comprehensive understanding of its benefits and costs to ecosystems and society. There are a number of barriers such as the technology required for weed control, organic seed availability, market, insurance etc., which prevent mass scale conversion to organic farming. Social capital is essential to produce other forms of capital. 6, 270278, https://doi.org/10.1177/2053019619872808 (2019). However, this require a major shift in US agricultural and energy policies that support the current GM corn systems. Corn is one of the major crops that contributes significantly to the gross domestic product (GDP) in Minnesota. Putnam, R. The prosperous community: Social capital and public life. (United Nations Environment, Geneva, 2018). To understand the type and form of human capital associated with corn production systems in Minnesota, we provide a snapshot of the various aspects of the rural population. Agricultural pollutants include nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as sediment from runoff. Organic standards include a limited number of synthetic substances, which are not innocuous but approved by legislators for limited use. Regarding organic corn production, there is some evidence of the reduced adverse health impact of corn intensity associated with the presence of local organic production. Krysel, C., Boyer, E. M., Parson, C & Welle, P. Lakeshore Property Values and Water Quality: Evidence from Property Sales in the Mississippi Headwaters Region (2003). The TEEBAgriFood evaluation framework is founded on the concept of natural, social and human capital37. There have been escape events in Canada with GM canola, flax, wheat and pigs. (A report of the International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems, 2017). More research is required to understand the magnitude of differences in leaching between the systems. Due to these differences, we found few instances where we could make definitive quantitative statements about the differences between these systems with regards to the indicators in this analysis. In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles However, if more land is required to meet demand under organic production, land use change could negate these benefits27. The commercialization of GM crops has delivered global agronomic, economic and social. Flows are the benefits and impacts over a period of time during the use of various capitals. One-third of the agricultural produce is wasted during harvesting, processing and consumption5. Balmford, A. et al. Ecol. Since 1900 there has been a continuous downward trend in the rural population due to migration to urban areas. Scientific Reports (Sci Rep) Google Scholar. GLP responds to ongoing false allegations from US Right to Know / Organic Consumers Association / SourceWatch / Baum Hedlund / Church of Scientology, additional 158 million tonnes of soybeans, dropping from 30 applications per season to 3, removing 10 million cars from the road for one year, 30,000 fewer cases of pesticide poisoning per year, COVID air detector: You can know essentially in real time, or every 5 minutes, if there is a live virus in the air, Long COVID-like symptoms may be side effect of COVID vaccines, FDA and university researchers tentatively say, Long-awaited National Intelligence report on COVID origins rejects China lab leak theory, sparking outrage among Wuhan skeptics and conspiracists, Viewpoint: Genetics of COVID Research into why some people never got the virus should explore genetic predisposition to long COVID, Podcast: RFK Jrs appearance on Joe Rogan podcast spreads dangerous misinformation about glyphosate, vaccines, cellphones and more, GLP podcast and video: Eating meat = cannibalism? according to the EU rules (Directive 2014/95/EU). World Bank. U.S. farm resource regions and the study area (Source: USDA ERS, 2010; Map generated by using Esris ArcMap software, version 10.6.1, https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/10.6/get-started/main/get-started-with-arcmap.htm). True cost of GM and organic corn production in Minnesota, US in 2017. The study advances the use of true cost accounting methods to support policy on sustainable agriculture, in order to minimize environmental and health related costs to society and wider economy. Increases in particulate matter and associated health impacts are a global consequence of fertilizer application. Social benefit of GMOs There is dissatisfaction in the EU about the approvals procedure for genetically modified crops, which currently only takes account of human and animal safety. Here, we focus on corn-based production systems in Minnesota, USA. Bracmort, K. The Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS): An Overview, Congressional Research Service, https://doi.org/R43325 (2018). University of Minnesota, Extension Center for Community Vitality. Thus, corn is an important crop for the economy of Minnesota. Google Scholar. (United States Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service, 2018b). Organic corn prices are always higher than the GM corn at about $190300 per MT due to its growing demand and low production. We apply a production emissions factor of 0.004 MT CO2e per kg of N fertilizer50 to statewide application estimates for corn35. Article PubMed PLoS ONE 12, e017613126, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0176131 (2017). 10(44003), 2015, https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/4/044003 (2015). Bray, G. A., Nielsen, S. J. Therefore, four capitals are described below as they provide basis for the analysis in this study. (2015). and R.H. collected data and analysed. The central thesis is that whilst new industries are necessary for economic growth, their development creates new environmental problems which become difficult to reverse. The use of manure as a fertilizer source may provide more P than is needed to achieve maximum yields on Minnesota soil. Water and air pollution from corn production is one possible explanation but quantifying the specific channels through which corn intensity affects health requires further exploratory analysis. (2012). Organic corn is primarily used as animal feed for livestock and poultry which are consumed by humans as meat products. Social networks and labor-market outcomes: Toward an economic analysis. USDA ERS. Public Health 8, 5564, https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2012.736257 (2012). We use three-stage well-being valuation method (Methodology for Valuing the Agriculture and the wider food-system Related Cost of Health, MARCH)4 to estimate the non-financial health costs of corn production in Minnesota. GM corn is used for producing ethanol as it is supported by the current energy policy. (2018). The intensive cultivation of GM crops has raised a wide range of concerns with respect to food safety, environmental effects, and socioeconomic issues. (Avaliable online at, http://www.blonkconsultants.nl/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/fertilizer_production-D03.pdf Accessed: 30th Novemebr 2018). In 2014, crop insurance subsides were expanded for corn and other crops, reducing the risk producers face from planting commodity crops on marginal land31. Nat. Article We also find that the total annual environmental cost associated with GM corn production is $179 per hectare or $557.65 million within Minnesota. Some of these networks provide benefits to individuals such as neighbours, friends etc., while others provide group benefits23. Out of 1.22 million rural population, there are about 73,400 farmers in Minnesota. One way to address this issue is to assess all positive and negative externalities associated with agricultural production systems in order to help develop appropriate response to shift farm practices and policies towards sustainable agriculture and protect environmental and human health. Out of the total GM corn grown in USA, 80% are stacked gene varieties, 10% Ht varieties and about 10% conventional non-GM, hybrid varieties. 26, 716 (2017). Morefield, P. E., LeDuc, S. D., Clark, C. M. & Iovanna, R. Grasslands, wetlands, and agriculture: the fate of land expiring from the conservation reserve program in the midwestern United States. Figure3 shows four key elements of the TEEBAgriFood evaluation framework - stocks, flows, outcomes and impacts, which are being analysed in the corn systems5. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 2007). The Minnesota Nutrient Reduction Strategy (2014). Some scientists focus on the potential risks of GM crops, while others emphasize their potential benefits. Am. Proc. We provide an estimate of the benefits and costs associated with corn production in terms of impacts of corn production on climate change, water quality, air quality, and soil quality, in addition to the benefit of crop production. Infographic: Pathway of human evolution, from protocells to people. The attribution of causation to individual diseases is highly challenging and whatever scientific studies are considered, results remain debatable. & Sukhdev, P. Transformation of agriculture and food systems: Application of TEEBAgriFood Framework. The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World. A majority of these benefits are in developing countries. This was supplemented by relevant data from scientific literature and various health and environmental reports. Montgomery, J. Flugge, M. et al. Economic Information Bulletin Number 128. Cancer is the leading cause of death in Minnesota, followed by cardio-vascular diseases, unintentional injury and chronic lower respiratory diseases. Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter what matters in science, free to your inbox daily. Various elements of the framework are described below. These non-communicable diseases have high economic costs to individuals, societies and the governments. The costs, in 2017 USD, of fixed and variable assets on a typical corn farm, are summarized in Table2. The reduced CO2 emissions come from the lack of synthetic N-fertilizer production. These are the organisms whose genome or DNA has been Q: Would you eat a GMO food? Corn production contributes to phosphorus pollution in Minnesota, thus changes in agricultural policies or associated land uses that affect phosphorus export will increase or decrease value attributed to clean water accordingly. Cons of GMO Crop Farming. While GM crops celebrate their 25th production anniversary, these technologies have been researched for a decade longer. Excessive use of nitrogen fertilizers in corn also contributes to the rising atmospheric levels of nitrous oxide (N2O)18. We have linked land use data to measures of general health from the Gallup Daily tracking survey. These can be measured by using various methods such as World Values Survey (WVS), Social capital index (SCI), and social survey46. Sukhdev, P. Smarter metrics will help fix our food system. Accessed: 30th November 2018). The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity, TEEB for Agriculture & Food: Scientific and Economic Foundations. These non-financial health costs do not include capital costs incurred in the public health system, loss of economic productivity, and loss of taxes and GDP. The valuation of non-financial health costs of corn production is based on three-stage well-being valuation method (Methodology for Valuing the Agriculture and the wider food-system Related Cost of Health, MARCH)4. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the articles Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. In addition to increased demand for corn, reductions in funding for the US Conservation Reserve Program have resulted in conversion of hundreds of thousands of acres of retired land to corn production33. Google Scholar. A UK Farmers Perspective: What are the Consequences for Sustainability and the Public When Biotechnology Innovations are Withheld? the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in At the same time, 2.1 billion people are overweight and adult obesity is on the rise, which is a major risk factor for non-communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes and some cancers7. Reactive Nitrogen in the United States: An Analysis of Inputs, Flows, Consequences, and Management Options. However, net returns are found to be higher in organic corn in two corn growing regions (Table2).